Author Archives: jejb

The Community Corrosive Effects of CLAs

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As one of the kernel DCO advocates, I’ve written many times about using the DCO instead of a CLA for copyright and patent contributions under open source licences. In spite of my obvious biases, I’ll try to give a factual overview of the cases for the DCO and CLA system. First, it should be noted that both the DCO and any CLA are types of Contribution Agreements (a set of terms by which contributors are agreeing to be bound). It should also be acknowledged that the DCO is a far more recent invention than CLAs. The DCO was first pioneered by the Linux kernel in 2004 (having been designed by Diane Peters, then of OSDL) and was subsequently adopted by a broad range of open source projects. However, in legal terms, the DCO is much less well understood than a standard CLA type agreement between the contributor and some entity, which is largely the reason you find a number of lawyers still advocating for the use of CLAs in various open source projects: because they’d like to stick with something that has more miles on it, or because they’re invested in the older model of community, largely pioneered by Apache. The biggest problem today is that the operation of most CLAs is asymmetrical: they take from the contributor more rights than the open source code actually needs, so lets begin with a summary of each type of Contribution Agreement.

DCO

The DCO is a legal representation by the contributor to everyone who might ever use the code. It requires no second party on the other side to counter sign it or act as the receiving entity, so it exactly mirrors the inbound=outbound licensing model first coined by Richard Fontana. The DCO explicitly grants to all downstream recipients only the exact rights the Open Source licence requires (and nothing more). In this sense it is fully symmetrical: the rights granted by the contributor are the same as the rights received by the downstream (i.e. inbound=outbound). Every contributor under the DCO retains their own copyright (or their company does if the contribution is a work for hire). The main alleged disadvantage of the DCO is that it encourages distributed ownership and makes it very hard to change the licence of the project because each contributor has only granted the rights necessary for the current licence, so if the new one requires more or different rights, all the current contributors have to re-grant those new or different rights (which can be a huge number of people for large long running projects). Since the DCO is a representation to everyone and requires no receiving entity, the project collecting the code doesn’t require any formal legal entity, like a foundation, to operate and thus the DCO gives rise to a truly lightweight structure for any project. The other big advantage of the DCO is that all of the representations are tracked by the Signed-off-by: tag on the commit, which goes in the git repository of the project code, so anyone with a clone of the repository has complete access to information about who changed what and where their DCO signoff is.

CLA

All current Open Source CLAs are structured as agreements between the contributor and a second party. Most often, the second party is a Foundation or a Corporation, making them quite heavy weight in terms of setup, admin and overhead. Every current CLA that I know about takes more rights from the contributor than the open source licence actually requires. For instance the Apache Individual CLA grants the right to copy, derive and sublicence to the Apache foundation who then relicence the contribution to the project usually under the Apache 2.0 licence. This is a classic asymmetric grant because the Apache foundation receives far more rights in the contribution than it grants to the downstream recipients. The FSF CLA is even more extreme because they require assignment of the copyright (so they will own the code and you, the author, will have no further right or interest in it except possibly for minimal moral rights to be named the author). Apart from the asymmetric grant, which places the receiving entity in a privileged position in the ecosystem, the other problem with CLAs is that they’re legal agreements, so they require a lawyer to prepare them, a mechanism to ensure people sign them and a mechanism to keep all the signatures … sometimes this can be in filing cabinets if paper instead of electronic copies are used. This repository of agreements then isn’t available to anyone except the tracking entity, meaning that if someone needs to know if John Doe signed a CLA, they have to reach out and ask. In some cases the actual filing cabinets got lost as projects changed offices, so some CLA based projects don’t actually have complete records of all their CLAs.

CLAs Catalyse Community Corrosion

The main driver of community corrosion is the temptation to abuse a position of power (this temptation becomes irresistable over time because, as Baron Acton put it, “all power corrupts”). Since CLAs by their nature force a power imbalance between the contributor and the receiving entity, they act as focal points for this corrosion. Communities are very sensitive to what they see as their work being misused, so the fastest way to lose community trust is to abuse the power the CLA gave you to go against the community itself. There are numerous examples of this in the Corporate World, the most topical one today being the Elastic change from Apache 2.0 to SSPL to better monetize the code the community contributed freely to. One might think the solution to this is never to sign a CLA if the holder of the power imbalance is a corporation … i.e. only do it if the other entity is a not for profit foundation. But ask yourself, how much do you trust the people running the foundation and do its bylaws guarantee your rights in the code? Relicensing for commercial gain isn’t the only way the community could be abused, so how sure are you of the power you’re handing to a foundation which, after all, is an entity governed by some type of board, all of whom likely have political agendas, won’t be abused? To see some examples of foundations not being in tune with their community, one only has to look at the FSF and Richard Stallman. Based on all of this I conclude, like Drew DeVault, that you should never sign a CLA under any circumstances.

The bottom line is that if you do sign a CLA some decision will happen at some point that you don’t agree with but which you already gave away the power to block because of the rights imbalance inherent in the CLA you signed. Inevitably this decision will cause you to feel betrayed because your views are being ignored and as a contributor you feel you should be heard, so you’ll sour on the project. This is the community corrosion catalyst buried deep inside all CLAs.

One final thing to note is that it is possible to craft a CLA that only takes the rights it needs, in the same way the DCO does, it’s just that no project I know has ever done this. However, even if this experiment were attempted, you still need a recipient entity, plus all the infrastructure to do signing and track the signed agreements, so you’d still be better off using a lightweight DCO process.

Conclusion: For Community Small is Beautiful

The way to avoid the community corrosion problem is to do everything minimally: use a DCO to take only the rights the downstream requires and to avoid all the heavyweight recipient, signing and tracking infrastructure. Don’t set up a foundation unless you absolutely need an entity, say to handle cash, and if you must set one up, never give it any control over the project (like appointing a change control or architecture control board for instance) everything you set up should be as small as possible and clearly serve the project and its community. Above all, don’t use a CLA because it will cause a rights imbalance that corrodes your community and it will require a large amount of overhead to run.

Owning Your Own Copyrights in Open Source

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This article covers several aspects: owning the copyrights you develop outside of your employed time and the more thorny aspect of owning the copyrights in open source projects you work on for your employer. It will also take a look at the middle ground of being a contract entity doing paid work on open source. This article follows the historical sweep of my journey through this field and so some aspects may be outdated and all are within the bounds of the US legal system and it’s most certainly not complete, just a description of what I did and what I learned.

Why Should you Own your Own Source code?

In the early days of open source, everything was a hobby project and everyone owned their own contributions. Owning your own contribution was a sort of mark of franchise in the project. Of course, there were some projects, notably the FSF ones, which didn’t believe in distributed ownership and insisted you contribute ownership of your copyrights to them so they could look after the project for you. Obviously, since I’m a Linux Kernel developer and with the Linux Kernel being a huge distributed copyright project, it’s easy to see which side of the argument I fall.

The main rights you give up if you don’t own the code you create are the right to re-licence and the right to enforce. It probably hadn’t occurred to you that if you actually find a licence violation in a project you contribute to for your employer, you’ll have no standing to demand that the problem get addressed. In fact, any enforcement on the code would have to be done by the proper owner: your employer. Plus your employer can control the ultimate destination of that ownership, including selling your code to a copyright troll if they so wished … while you may trust your employer now you work for them, do you trust them to do the right thing for all time, especially since they may be bought out by EvilCorp on down the road?

The relicensing problem can also be thorny: as a strong open source contributor you’ve likely been on the receiving end of requests to relicense (“I really like the code in your project X and would like to incorporate it in my open source project Y, but there’s a licence compatibility problem, would you dual license it?”) and thought nothing about saying “yes”. However, if your employer owns the code, you were likely lying when you said “yes” because you have no relicensing rights and you must ask your employer for permission to do the relicensing.

All the above points up the dangers in the current ecosystem. Project contributors often behave like they own the code but if they don’t they can be leaving a legal minefield in their wakes. The way to fix this is to own your own code … or at least understand the limitations of your rights if you don’t.

Open Source in Your Own Time

It’s a mistake to think that just because you work on something in your own time it isn’t actually owned by your employer. Historically, at least in the US, employment agreements contain incredibly broad provisions for invention ownership which basically try to claim anything you invent at any hour of the day or night that might be even vaguely related to your employment. Not unnaturally this caused huge volumes of litigation around startups where former employees successfully develop innovations their prior employer declined to pursue (at least until it started making money). This has lead to a slew of state based legal safe harbour protections for employee inventions. Most of them, like the Illinois Statute I first used, have similar wording

A provision in an employment agreement which provides that an employee shall assign or offer to assign any of the employee’s rights in an invention to the employer does not apply to an invention for which no equipment, supplies, facilities, or trade secret information of the employer was used and which was developed entirely on the employee’s own time … is … void and unenforceable.

765 ILCS 1060/2

In fact most states now require the wording to appear in the employment contract, so you likely don’t have to look up the statute to figure out what to do. The biggest requirements are that it be on your own time and you not be using any employer equipment, so the most important thing is to make sure you have your own laptop or computer. If you follow the requirements to the letter, you should be safe enough in owning your own time open source code. However, if you really want a guarantee you need to take extra precautions.

Own Time Open Source Carve Outs in Employment agreements

When you join a company, one of the things you’ll sign is a prior invention disclosure form, usually as an appendix to the invention assignment agreement as part of your employment contract. Here’s an example one from the SEC database (ironically for a Chinese subsidiary). Look particularly at section 2(a) “Inventions Retained and Licensed”. It’s basically pure CYA for the company, and most people leave Exhibit A blank, but you shouldn’t do that. What you should do is list all your current and future (by doing sweeping guesswork) own open source projects. The most useful clause in 2(a) says “I agree that I will not incorporate any Prior Inventions into any products …” so you and your employer have now agreed that all the listed projects are outside the scope of your employment agreement.

As far as I can tell, no-one really looks at Exhibit A at all, so I’ve been really general and put things like “The Linux Kernel” and “Open Source UEFI software” “Open Source cryptography such as gnupg, openssl and gnutls” and never been challenged on it.

One legitimate question, which will probably happen if your carve outs are very broad, is what happens if your employer specifically asks you to work on a project you’ve declared in Exhibit A? Ideally you could use this as an opportunity to negotiate an addendum to your contract covering your ownership of open source. However, if you don’t want to rock the boat, you can simply do nothing and rely on the fact that the agreement has something to say about this. The sample section 2(a) above goes on to give your employer a non-exclusive licence, which you could take as agreement to your continued ownership of the copyrights in the code, even through your employer is now instructing you (and paying you) to work on it. However, the say nothing approach has never been tested in court and may be vulnerable to challenge, so a safer course is to send your manager an email pointing out the issue and proposing to follow the licence in the employment contract. If they do nothing, thinking the matter settled, as most managers do, then you have legal cover for continuing to own your own copyrights. You can make it as vague as you like, so using the above sample agreement, something like “You’ve asked me to work on Project X which was listed in Exhibit A of my employment agreement. To move forward, I’m happy to licence all future works on this project to you under the terms of section 2(a)”. It looks innocuous, but it’s actually a statement that your company doesn’t get copyright ownership because of the actual wording in section 2(a) says the company gets a non-exclusive licence if you incorporate any works listed in Exhibit A. Remember to save the email somewhere safe (and any reply which is additional proof it was seen) just in case.

Owning Open Source Produced on Company Time

The first thing to note is that if your employer pays for you to work on open source, absent any side agreement, the code that you produce will be owned by your employer. This isn’t some US specific thing, this is a general principle of employment the world over (they pay you, so they own it). So even if you work in Europe, your employer will still own your open source copyrights if they pay you to work on the project, moral rights arguments notwithstanding. The only way to change this is to get some sort of explicit or implicit (if you want to go the carve out route above) agreement about the ownership.

Although I’ve negotiated both joint and exclusive ownership of open source via employment agreements, the actual agreements are still the property of the relevant corporations and thus, unfortunately, while I can describe some of the elements, I can’t publish the text (employment agreements are the crown jewels the HR dragons guard).

How to Negotiate

Most employers (or at least their lawyers) will refuse point blank to change the wording of employment agreements. However, what you want can be a side agreement and usually doesn’t require rewording the employment agreement at all. All you need is the understanding that the side agreement will get executed. One big problem can be that most negotiations over employment agreements occur with people from HR, which is a department with the least understanding of open source, so you don’t want to be negotiating the side agreement with them, you want to talk to the person that is hiring you. You also need to present your request as reasonable, so find out if anyone inside your prospective new company has done something similar. Often they have, and they’ll likely be someone in open source you’ve at least heard of so you can approach them and ask for details. “But you gave a copyright ownership side agreement to X” is often a great way to advance your cause. Don’t be afraid to ask and argue politely but firmly … hiring talented developers is very competitive nowadays so they have (or at least the manager who wants to hire you has) a vested interest in keeping you happy.

Consider Joint Ownership

Joint ownership is a specific legal term meaning the rights in a copyright are shared by the joint owners. Effectively this sharing means that either party may enforce without consulting the other and either party may license the work without consulting the other (but here they must share any profits from the licence equally among joint owners).

Joint ownership is often a good solution because it gives you the right to relicence and the right to enforce, while also giving your employer a share in what they paid to produce. Joint ownership is often far easier to sell to corporations than one or other of you having exclusive ownership because it gives them all the rights they would have had anyway. The only slight concern you may have down the road is it does give them the right to relicence or sell on their ownership, say to an open core business or to an enforcement troll. However, the good news is that as joint owner you now have a right to a half share of any profit they (and the new owner) make out of such a rights transfer, which can potentially act as a deterrent to the transaction if you remind them of this requirement.

Open Source as a Contractor

In some ways this is the best relationship. There are no work for hire assumptions about companies you contract for owning your free time, so doing other open source projects is easy. However, a contractor is bound by whatever contract you sign, so you need someone with legal training to help you make sure it is actually equitable. You can’t get around this legal requirement: the protections that exist for employees don’t exist for contractors, so if you sign a contract saying in exchange for a certain sum company X owns the entirety of your output, you will be bound by it. So remember: read the contract and negotiate the terms.

Copyright Ownership as a Contractor

Surprisingly, in a relationship where you’re contracted to get something upstream, it’s often in the client’s best interest to have the contractor own the copyrights in Open Source. It means the contractor is responsible for all the nitty gritty of pushing patches and dealing with contribution agreements and the client simply gets the end product: the thing they wanted upstream. I’ve found this a surprisingly easy sell to most legal departments. Even if the client does want some sort of ownership of the code, you can offer joint ownership as the easy route to you taking on all the hassle and them getting the benefits of ownership.

Trade Secrets

As a contractor, you’ll likely be forced to sign an NDA never to reveal client secrets. This is pretty usual, but the pitfall in open source, particularly if you’re doing a driver for a device whose programming manual is under NDA, is that you are going to be revealing them contrary to the NDA. You need this handled in an equitable fashion in the contract to avoid unpleasant problems long after the job is done. The simplest phrase you need is something like “Client understands that open source is developed in public and authorizes that all information necessary to producing X under this contract be disclosed to the public”.

Patents

Patents can be a huge minefield with contract open source, because as a contractor who owns the copyrights and negotiates the contribution agreements, you have no authority to bind your client’s patents. You really don’t want to find yourself being used as a conduit for a patent ambush on open source (where a client contracts with you to put code into a project which reads on a patent they hold and then turns around and patent trolls the ecosystem) so you need contract language binding the client patents at least in the work you’re doing for them. Something simple like “Client grants a perpetual and irrevocable licence, consistent with the terms of the open source licence for X, to all contributions made by contractor to X that read on patents client holds now or may in future acquire”. This latter is pretty narrow, so you could start out by trying to get a patent licence for the entirety of project X and negotiate down from there.

Conclusions

Owning your own copyrights in open source is possible provided you’re careful. The strategies outlined above are based on my own experiences (all in the US) as a contract employee from 1995-2008 there after as a regular employee but are not the only ones you could pursue, so ask around to see what others have done as well. The main problem with all the strategies above is that they work well when you’re negotiating your employment. If you’re already working at some corporation they’re unlikely to be helpful to you unless you really have a simple own time open source project. Oh, and just remember that while the snippets I quoted above for the contract case may actually have been in contracts I signed, this isn’t legal advice and you should have a lawyer advise you how best to incorporate the various points raised.

Papering Over our TPM 2.0 TSS Divisions

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For years I’ve been hoping that the Trusted Computing Group (TCG) based IBM and Intel TSS (TCG Software Stack) would simply integrate with one another into a single package. The rationale is pretty simple: the Intel TSS is already quite a large collection of libraries so adding one more (the IBM TSS has a single library) wouldn’t be too much of a burden. Both TSSs are based on TCG specifications, except that the IBM TSS is based on the TPM 2.0 Library Specification and the Intel TSS is based on the TPM Software Stack (also, not at all confusingly, abbreviated TSS). There’s actually very little overlap between these specifications so co-existence seems very reasonable. Before we get into the stories of these two stacks and what they do, I should confess my biases: while I’ve worked with the TCG over the years, I’ve always harboured the view that the complete lack of adoption of TPM 2.0’s predecessor (TPM 1.2) was because of the hugely complicated nature of the TCG mandated software stack which was implemented in Linux by trousers. It is my firm belief that the complexity of the API lead to the lack of uptake, even though I made several efforts over the years to make use of it.

My primary interest in the TPM has been as a secure laptop keystore (since I already paid for a TPM, I didn’t see the need to fork out again for one of the new security dongles; plus the TPM is infinitely scalable in the number of keys, unlike most dongles). The key to making the TPM usable in this form is integration with existing Cryptographic systems (via plugins if they do them). Since openssl has an engine plugin, I’ve already produced an openssl TPM2 engine, patches for gnupg and engine integration patches for openvpn (upstream in 2.5) and openssh as well as a PKC11 exporter (to make file based engine keys exportable as PKCS11 tokens). Note a lot of the patches aren’t strictly TPM patches, they’re actually making openssl engines work in places they previously didn’t. However, the one thing most of the patches that actually touch the TPM have in common is that they have to pick one or other of the available TSSs to operate with. Before describing the TSS agnostic solution, lets look at why these two TSSs exist and what the difference is between them and why you might choose one over the other.

Schizophrenia at the TCG

As I said in the introduction, both TSSs are based on TCG specifications. These standards aren’t ambiguous: they lay out in excruciating detail what the header files are called and what the prototypes and structures have to be. Both TSS implementations are the way they are because they wouldn’t be following the standards if they deviated even slightly. The problem is the standards don’t agree with each other in meaningful ways. For instance the TPM Library standards define every structure in terms of the fundamental unit of TPM data: the TPM2B structure, which defines a 16 bit big endian length followed by a data unit of that length. The TPM Library standards (in Part 4 section 9.10.6) lay out that every TPM2B_X structure shall be a union of a ‘b’ element which is a TPM2B and a ‘t’ element which is the actual structure. However the TPM Software Stack specification eliminates the plain TPM2B so every TPM2B_X structure in the latter specification are not unions, they are simply the ‘t’ form of the structure. This means that although TPM2B_X structures in each specification are byte for byte the same, they are definitionally different when written as C code and can’t be assigned to each other … oops. The TPM Library standard lays out additional structures for an elaborate calling convention for the TPM2_Command interfaces which are completely different from the ESYS_Command interfaces in the TPM Software Stack.

The reason it’s all done this way? well the specifications were built by completely different committees for what the committees saw as separate use cases, so they didn’t see a need to reconcile the differences. As long as the definitions were byte for byte compatible, everything would work out correctly on the wire. The problem was the TPM Library specification was released nearly a decade ahead of the TPM Software Stack specification, so the first TSS created had to follow the former because the latter didn’t exist.

Sessions, HMAC and Encryption

One of the perennial problems of a TPM is that integrity and security of the information going over the wire is the responsibility of the user. However, the encryption and integrity computations involved, particularly the key derivations, are incredibly involved (even though well documented in the TPM Library specification, so naturally everyone would like the TSS to do this. The problem the TPM Secure Stack had is that all the way up to its ESAPI specification, the security and integrity computations were still the responsibility of the user, so it didn’t begin to be useful until ESAPI was finalized a couple of years ago.

The Resource Manager Problem

TPM 2.0 was designed to be far leaner in terms of resources than TPM 1.2, which meant there was a very small limit to the number of sessions and volatile objects it could contain at any one time. This necessitated the use of a “resource manager” to control access otherwise applications would get unexpected out of resource errors. The Intel TSS has its own resource manager. However, the Linux Kernel itself incorporated a resource manager in the TPM device in 4.12 and the IBM TSS avoids the need for its own resource manager by using this, and will, therefore not work correctly on earlier kernel versions.

Inside the IBM TSS

Even though the IBM TSS is based on a solid and easily comprehensible and detailed specification, that specification itself suffers from a couple of defects. The first being it assumes you’re submitting to a physical TPM, so the specification has no functional (library based) submission API for TPM commands, so the IBM TSS had to invent API it called TSS_Execute() which is a way of sending TPM commands directly to the physical TPM over the kernel’s device interfaces. Secondly, the standard contains no routing interfaces (telling it what destination the TPM is on: should it open the /dev/tpmrm0 device or send the commands to the TPM over an IP socket), so this is controlled in the IBM TSS by several environment variables (TPM_INTERFACE_TYPE, which can be either “dev” or “socsim” for either a physical device or a network socket. The endpoints being controlled by TPM_DEVICE for “dev” type, which specifies which device to use, defaulting to /dev/tpmrm0 or TPM_SERVER_NAME and TPM_PLAFORM_PORT for “socsim”).

The invented TSS_Execute() API also does all the encryption and HMAC parts necessary for secure and integrity verified communication with the TPM, so it acts as a fully functional TSS. The main drawback of the IBM TSS is that it stores essential information about the sessions and handles in files which will, by default, be dropped into the local directory. Most users of the IBM TSS have to set TPM_DATA_DIR to be a specially created directory under /tmp to avoid leaving messy artifacts in users home directories.

Inside the Intel TSS

The TPM Software Stack consists of a large number of different specifications, including the resource manager (which is now unnecessary for kernels above 4.12) the TCTI which specifies the routing information for the TPM. It turns out that even in the Intel TSS, environment variables are the most convenient form to specify this information but, unfortunately, the name of the environment variable has been left up to each use case instead of being standardised in the library meaning you’ll have to consult the man page to figure out what it is. The next set of standards: SAPI and ESAPI define functional interfaces to the TPM with one submission API for each command and additionally a corresponding ..._Async()/..._Finish() pair for asynchronous programming. The only real difference between SAPI and ESAPI is that the latter also does the necessary session cryptography for security and integrity, so it’s pretty much the only usable interface for TPM commands. Unfortunately, the ESAPI interface, as constructed by the TCG, has several cases of premature abstraction the worst of which is a separate abstraction for the TPM handle interface which lives only as long as the lifetime of the connection object and which necessitates multiple conversions to and from internal handle objects if your session or object lives longer than the connection (which can be the case).

There is one final wrinkle is that in the handle abstraction, ESAPI has no API for retrieving the real TPM handle. I’d always wondered why the Intel TSS tpm2 tools always saved the objects they create to a context instead of simply returning the handle to them, but this is the reason: without the ability to transform an internal handle to an external one, you either save the context or let the object die when the connection terminates. This problem is one forced by the ESAPI standard, but eventually it became enough of a problem that the Intel TSS introduced its own additional API to remedy.

The other major difference between the Intel and IBM TSSs is memory handling for returned results: The IBM TSS requires pre-allocated structures whereas the Intel TSS insists on allocation on return. It looks like the Intel TSS should be able to tell if the return pointer is allocated or NULL, but right at the moment it always allocates and overwrites the pointer.

Constructing a unifying Interface for both the IBM and Intel TSSs

In essence the process for converting something that runs with the IBM TSS to being TSS Agnostic is a fairly simple three step process which I’ll illustrate by reference to the openssl tpm2 engine which has already been converted:

  1. Hide the structural differences by inserting a set of macros: VAL() and VAL_2B() which hide most of the TCG induced structure schizophrenia.
  2. Convert the API call structure to be functional instead of via a single TSS_Execute() call. This is quite involved so I did it by adding tpm2_Function() wrappers for each specific invocation.
  3. Introduce the correct premature abstraction for internal and external representation of handles. This was the nastiest step for me because handles are stored in long lived engine structures, and the internal and external representations are both forms of uint32_t even in ESAPI (meaning the compiler won’t complain if you assign one to the other) so it was incredibly painful to get this conversion correct.

Once this is done, the remaining step was to introduce a header which did the impedance matching between the Intel and IBM TSSs and an autoconf macro to detect which TSS is installed and the resulting configure and compile just works. The resulting code will now build and run under either TSS. I should point out that the Intel TSS is missing several helper routines, but these are added into the intel-tss.h header file by copying the from the original IBM TSS. Finally an autoconf check is added to look for the missing internal to external handle transform, and everything is ready to go.

It does seem like it would be easier to port an existing Intel TSS application to the IBM TSS, since points 2 and 3 will already be sorted out. However, all the major TSS library using applications are IBM TSS based, so I haven’t actually been able to verify this.

Remaining Problems and Anomalies

The biggest remaining issue was the test scripts. The openssl TPM2 engine has 27 of them all told, all designed to check the engine function by invoking it via openssl when connected to a software TPM. These scripts are all highly dependent on the IBM TSS command line binaries and the Intel TSS versions seem to be very unstable in terms of argument structure making it pretty much impossible to convert, so I elected finally to have the tests run only if the IBM TSS CLI is installed. The next problem was that the Intel TSS version of the engine didn’t actually pass all the tests. However this was quickly narrowed down to a bug in the Intel TSS when using bound sessions on the NULL seed.

The sole remaining issue is a curious performance anomaly. When running time make check with the IBM TSS, the result is:

real 0m6.100s
user 0m2.827s
sys 0m0.822s

and the same command with the Intel TSS (running one fewer test and skipping the NULL seed) is:

real	0m10.948s
user	0m6.822s
sys	0m0.859s

Showing that the Intel TSS is nearly twice as slow as the IBM one with most of the time differential being user time. Since the tests use a software TPM which can perform the cryptographic operations at the speed of the main CPU, this is showing some type of issue with the command transmission system of the Intel TSS, likely having to do with the fact that most applications use synchronous TPM operations (the engine certainly does) but in the Intel TSS, the synchronous operations are implemented as the corresponding asynchronous pair. Regardless of the root cause, this is unlikely to be a problem with real world TPM crypto where the time taken for any operation will be dominated by the slowness of the physical TPM.

Conclusion

The TSS agnostic scheme adopted by the openssl TPM2 engine should be easily adaptable for all the other non-engine TPM code bases, and thus should pave the way for users not having to choose between applications which only support the Intel or IBM TSSs and can choose to install the best supported one on their distribution. The next steps are to investigate adapting this infrastructure to the existing gnupg patches (done and upstream) and also see if it can be used to solve the gnutls conundrum over supporting TPM based keys.

Deploying Encrypted Images for Confidential Computing

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In the previous post I looked at how you build an encrypted image that can maintain its confidentiality inside AMD SEV or Intel TDX. In this post I’ll discuss how you actually bring up a confidential VM from an encrypted image while preserving secrecy. However, first a warning: This post represents the state of the art and includes patches that are certainly not deployed in distributions and may not even be upstream, so if you want to follow along at home you’ll need to patch things like qemu, grub and OVMF. I should also add that, although I’m trying to make everything generic to confidential environments, this post is based on AMD SEV, which is the only confidential encrypted1 environment currently shipping.

The Basics of a Confidential Computing VM

At its base, current confidential computing environments are about using encrypted memory to run the virtual machine and guarding the encryption key so that the owner of the host system (the cloud service provider) can’t get access to it. Both SEV and TDX have the encryption technology inside the main memory controller meaning the L1 cache isn’t encrypted (still vulnerable to cache side channels) and DMA to devices must also be done via unencryped memory. This latter also means that both the BIOS and the Operating System of the guest VM must be enlightened to understand which pages to encrypted and which must not. For this reason, all confidential VM systems use OVMF2 to boot because this contains the necessary enlightening. To a guest, the VM encryption looks identical to full memory encryption on a physical system, so as long as you have a kernel which supports Intel or AMD full memory encryption, it should boot.

Each confidential computing system has a security element which sits between the encrypted VM and the host. In SEV this is an aarch64 processor called the Platform Security Processor (PSP) and in TDX it is an SGX enclave running Intel proprietary code. The job of the PSP is to bootstrap the VM, including encrypting the initial OVMF and inserting the encrypted pages. The security element also includes a validation certificate, which incorporates a Diffie-Hellman (DH) key. Once the guest owner obtains and validates the DH key it can use it to construct a one time ECDH encrypted bundle that can be passed to the security element on bring up. This bundle includes an encryption key which can be used to encrypt secrets for the security element and a validation key which can be used to verify measurements from the security element.

The way QEMU boots a Q35 machine is to set up all the configuration (including a disk device attached to the VM Image) load up the OVMF into rom memory and start the system running. OVMF pulls in the QEMU configuration and constructs the necessary ACPI configuration tables before executing grub and the kernel from the attached storage device. In a confidential VM, the first task is to establish a Guest Owner (the person whose encrypted VM it is) which is usually different from the Host Owner (the person running or controlling the Physical System). Ownership is established by transferring an encrypted bundle to the Secure Element before the VM is constructed.

The next step is for the VMM (QEMU in this case) to ask the secure element to provision the OVMF Firmware. Since the initial OVMF is untrusted, the Guest Owner should ask the Secure Element for an attestation of the memory contents before the VM is started. Since all paths lead through the Host Owner, who is also untrusted, the attestation contains a random nonce to prevent replay and is HMAC’d with a Guest Supplied key from the Launch Bundle. Once the Guest Owner is happy with the VM state, it supplies the Wrapped Key to the secure element (along with the nonce to prevent replay) and the Secure Element unwraps the key and provisions it to the VM where the Guest OS can use it for disc encryption. Finally, the enlightened guest reads the encrypted disk to unencrypted memory using DMA but uses the disk encryptor to decrypt it to encrypted memory, so the contents of the Encrypted VM Image are never visible to the Host Owner.

The Gaps in the System

The most obvious gap is that EFI booting systems don’t go straight from the OVMF firmware to the OS, they have to go via an EFI bootloader (grub, usually) which must be an efi binary on an unencrypted vFAT partition. The second gap is that grub must be modified to pick the disk encryption key out of wherever the Secure Element has stashed it. The third is that the key is currently stashed in VM memory before OVMF starts, so OVMF must know not to use or corrupt the memory. A fourth problem is that the current recommended way of booting OVMF has a flash drive for persistent variable storage which is under the control of the host owner and which isn’t part of the initial measurement.

Plugging The Gaps: OVMF

To deal with the problems in reverse order: the variable issue can be solved simply by not having a persistent variable store, since any mutable configuration information could be used to subvert the boot and leak the secret. This is achieved by stripping all the mutable variable handling out of OVMF. Solving key stashing simply means getting OVMF to set aside a page for a secret area and having QEMU recognise where it is for the secret injection. It turns out AMD were already working on a QEMU configuration table at a known location by the Reset Vector in OVMF, so the secret area is added as one of these entries. Once this is done, QEMU can retrieve the injection location from the OVMF binary so it doesn’t have to be specified in the QEMU Machine Protocol (QMP) command. Finally OVMF can protect the secret and package it up as an EFI configuration table for later collection by the bootloader.

The final OVMF change (which is in the same patch set) is to pull grub inside a Firmware Volume and execute it directly. This certainly isn’t the only possible solution to the problem (adding secure boot or an encrypted filesystem were other possibilities) but it is the simplest solution that gives a verifiable component that can be invariant across arbitrary encrypted boots (so the same OVMF can be used to execute any encrypted VM securely). This latter is important because traditionally OVMF is supplied by the host owner rather than being part of the VM image supplied by the guest owner. The grub script that runs from the combined volume must still be trusted to either decrypt the root or reboot to avoid leaking the key. Although the host owner still supplies the combined OVMF, the measurement assures the guest owner of its correctness, which is why having a fairly invariant component is a good idea … so the guest owner doesn’t have potentially thousands of different measurements for approved firmware.

Plugging the Gaps: QEMU

The modifications to QEMU are fairly simple, it just needs to scan the OVMF file to determine the location for the injected secret and inject it correctly using a QMP command.. Since secret injection is already upstream, this is a simple find and make the location optional patch set.

Plugging the Gaps: Grub

Grub today only allows for the manual input of the cryptodisk password. However, in the cloud we can’t do it this way because there’s no guarantee of a secure tty channel to the VM. The solution, therefore, is to modify grub so that the cryptodisk can use secrets from a provider, in addition to the manual input. We then add a provider that can read the efi configuration tables and extract the secret table if it exists. The current incarnation of the proposed patch set is here and it allows cryptodisk to extract a secret from an efisecret provider. Note this isn’t quite the same as the form expected by the upstream OVMF patch in its grub.cfg because now the provider has to be named on the cryptodisk command line thus

cryptodisk -s efisecret

but in all other aspects, Grub/grub.cfg works. I also discovered several other deviations from the initial grub.cfg (like Fedora uses /boot/grub2 instead of /boot/grub like everyone else) so the current incarnation of grub.cfg is here. I’ll update it as it changes.

Putting it All Together

Once you have applied all the above patches and built your version of OVMF with grub inside, you’re ready to do a confidential computing encrypted boot. However, you still need to verify the measurement and inject the encrypted secret. As I said before, this isn’t easy because, due to replay defeat requirements, the secret bundle must be constructed on the fly for each VM boot. From this point on I’m going to be using only AMD SEV as the example because the Intel hardware doesn’t yet exist and AMD kindly gave IBM research a box to play with (Anyone with a new EPYC 7xx1 or 7xx2 based workstation can likely play along at home, but check here). The first thing you need to do is construct a launch bundle. AMD has a tool called sev-tool to do this for you and the first thing you need to do is obtain the platform Diffie Hellman certificate (pdh.cert). The tool will extract this for you

sevtool --pdh_cert_export

Or it can be given to you by the cloud service provider (in this latter case you’ll want to verify the provenance using sevtool –validate_cert_chain, which contacts the AMD site to verify all the details). Once you have a trusted pdh.cert, you can use this to generate your own guest owner DH cert (godh.cert) which should be used only one time to give a semblance of ECDHE. godh.cert is used with pdh.cert to derive an encryption key for the launch bundle. You can generate this with

sevtool --generate_launch_blob <policy>

The gory details of policy are in the SEV manual chapter 3, but most guests use 1 which means no debugging. This command will generate the godh.cert, the launch_blob.bin and a tmp_tk.bin file which you must save and keep secure because it contains the Transport Encryption and Integrity Keys (TEK and TIK) which will be used to encrypt the secret. Figuring out the qemu command line options needed to launch and pause a SEV guest is a bit of a palaver, so here is mine. You’ll likely need to change things, like the QMP port and the location of your OVMF build and the launch secret.

Finally you need to get the launch measure from QMP, verify it against the sha256sum of OVMF.fd and create the secret bundle with the correct GUID headers. Since this is really fiddly to do with sevtool, I wrote this python script3 to do it all (note it requires qmp.py from the qemu git repository). You execute it as

sevsecret.py --passwd <disk passwd> --tiktek-file <location of tmp_tk.bin> --ovmf-hash <hash> --socket <qmp socket>

And it will verify the launch measure and encrypt the secret for the VM if the measure is correct and start the VM. If you got everything correct the VM will simply boot up without asking for a password (if you inject the wrong secret, it will still ask). And there you have it: you’ve booted up a confidential VM from an encrypted image file. If you’re like me, you’ll also want to fire up gdb on the qemu process just to show that the entire memory of the VM is encrypted …

Conclusions and Caveats

The above script should allow you to boot an encrypted VM anywhere: locally or in the cloud, provided you can access the QMP port (most clouds use libvirt which introduces yet another additional layering pain). The biggest drawback, if you refer to the diagram, is the yellow box: you must trust the secret element, which in both Intel and AMD is proprietary4, in order to get confidential computing to work. Although there is hope that in future the secret element could be fully open source, it isn’t today.

The next annoyance is that launching a confidential VM is high touch requiring collaboration from both the guest owner and the host owner (due to the anti-replay nonce). For a single launch, this is a minor annoyance but for an autoscaling (launch VMs as needed) platform it becomes a major headache. The solution seems to be to have some Hardware Security Module (HSM), like the cloud uses today to store encryption keys securely, and have it understand how to measure and launch encrypted VMs on behalf of the guest owner.

The final conclusion to remember is that confidentiality is not security: your VM is as exploitable inside a confidential encrypted VM as it was outside. In many ways confidentiality and security are opposites, in that security in part requires reducing the trusted code and confidentiality requires pulling as much as possible inside. Confidential VMs do have an answer to the Cloud trust problem since the enterprise can now deploy VMs without fear of tampering by the cloud provider, but those VMs are as insecure in the cloud as they were in the Enterprise Data Centre. All of this argues that Confidential Computing, while an important milestone, is only one step on the journey to cloud security.

Patch Status

The OVMF patches are upstream (including modifications requested by Intel for TDX). The QEMU and grub patch sets are still on the lists.

Building Encrypted Images for Confidential Computing

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With both Intel and AMD announcing confidential computing features to run encrypted virtual machines, IBM research has been looking into a new format for encrypted VM images. The first question is why a new format, after all qcow2 only recently deprecated its old encrypted image format in favour of luks. The problem is that in confidential computing, the guest VM runs inside the secure envelope but the host hypervisor (including the QEMU process) is untrusted and thus runs outside the secure envelope and, unfortunately, even for the new luks format, the encryption of the image is handled by QEMU and so the encryption key would be outside the secure envelope. Thus, a new format is needed to keep the encryption key (and, indeed, the encryption mechanism) within the guest VM itself. Fortunately, encrypted boot of Linux systems has been around for a while, and this can be used as a practical template for constructing a fully confidential encrypted image format and maintaining that confidentiality within a hostile cloud environment. In this article, I’ll explore the state of the art in encrypted boot, constructing EFI encrypted boot images, and finally, in the follow on article, look at deploying an encrypted image into a confidential environment and maintaining key secrecy in the cloud.

Encrypted Boot State of the Art

Luks and the cryptsetup toolkit have been around for a while and recently (in 2018), the luks format was updated to version 2. However, actually booting a linux kernel from an encrypted partition has always been a bit of a systems problem, primarily because the bootloader (grub) must decrypt the partition to actually load the kernel. Fortunately, grub can do this, but unfortunately the current grub in most distributions (2.04) can only read the version 1 luks format. Secondly, the user must type the decryption passphrase into grub (so it can pull the kernel and initial ramdisk out of the encrypted partition to boot them), but grub currently has no mechanism to pass it on to the initial ramdisk for mounting root, meaning that either the user has to type their passphrase twice (annoying) or the initial ramdisk itself has to contain a file with the disk passphrase. This latter is the most commonly used approach and only has minor security implications when the system is in motion (the ramdisk and the key file must be root read only) and the password is protected at rest by the fact that the initial ramdisk is also on the encrypted volume. Even more annoying is the fact that there is no distribution standard way of creating the initial ramdisk. Debian (and Ubuntu) have the most comprehensive documentation on how to do this, so the next section will look at the much less well documented systemd/dracut mechanism.

Encrypted Boot for Systemd/Dracut

Part of the problem here seems to be less that stellar systems co-ordination between the two components. Additionally, the way systemd supports passphraseless encrypted volumes has been evolving for a while but changed again in v246 to mirror the Debian method. Since cloud images are usually pretty up to date, I’ll describe this new way. Each encrypted volume is referred to by UUID (which will be the UUID of the containing partition returned by blkid). To get dracut to boot from an encrypted partition, you must pass in

rd.luks.uuid=<UUID>

but you must also have a key file named

/etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/luks-<UUID>.key

And, since dracut hasn’t yet caught up with this, you usually need a cryptodisk.conf file in /etc/dracut.conf.d/ which contains

install_items+=" /etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/* "

Grub and EFI Booting Encrypted Images

Traditionally grub is actually installed into the disk master boot record, but for EFI boot that changed and the disk (or VM image) must have an EFI System partition which is where the grub.efi binary is installed. Part of the job of the grub.efi binary is to find the root partition and source the /boot/grub5/grub.cfg. When you install grub on an EFI partition a search for the root by UUID is actually embedded into the grub binary. Another problem is likely that your distribution customizes the location of grub and updates the boot variables to tell the system where it is. However, a cloud image can’t rely on the boot variables and must be installed in the default location (\EFI\BOOT\bootx64.efi). This default location can be achieved by adding the –removable flag to grub-install.

For encrypted boot, this becomes harder because the grub in the EFI partition must set up the cryptographic location by UUID. However, if you add

GRUB_ENABLE_CRYPTODISK=y

To /etc/default/grub it will do the necessary in grub-install and grub-mkconfig. Note that on Fedora, where every other GRUB_ENABLE parameter is true/false, this must be ‘y’, unfortunately grub-install will look for =y not =true.

Putting it all together: Encrypted VM Images

Start by extracting the root of an existing VM image to a tar file. Make sure it has all the tools you will need, like cryptodisk and grub-efi. Create a two partition raw image file and loopback mount it (I usually like 4GB) with a small efi partition (p1) and an encrypted root (p2):

truncate -s 4GB disk.img
parted disk.img mklabel gpt
parted disk.img mkpart primary 1Mib 100Mib
parted disk.img mkpart primary 100Mib 100%
parted disk.img set 1 esp on
parted disk.img set 1 boot on

Now setup the efi and cryptosystem (I use ext4, but it’s not required). Note at this time luks will require a password. Use a simple one and change it later. Also note that most encrypted boot documents advise filling the encrypted partition with random numbers. I don’t do this because the additional security afforded is small compared with the advantage of converting the raw image to a smaller qcow2 one.

losetup -P -f disk.img          # assuming here it uses loop0
l=($(losetup -l|grep disk.img)) # verify with losetup -l
mkfs.vfat ${l}p1
blkid ${l}p1       # remember the EFI partition UUID
cryptsetup --type luks1 luksFormat ${l}p2 # choose temp password
blkid ${l}p2       # remember this as <UUID> you'll need it later 
cryptsetup luksOpen ${l}p2 cr_root
mkfs.ext4 /dev/mapper/cr_root
mount /dev/mapper/cr_root /mnt
tar -C /mnt -xpf <vm root tar file>
for m in run sys proc dev; do mount --bind /$m /mnt/$m; done
chroot /mnt

Create or modify /etc/fstab to have root as /dev/disk/cr_root and the EFI partition by label under /boot/efi. Now set up grub for encrypted boot6

echo "GRUB_ENABLE_CRYPTODISK=y" >> /etc/default/grub
mount /boot/efi
grub-install --removable --target=x86_64-efi
grub-mkconfig -o /boot/grub/grub.cfg

For Debian, you’ll need to add an /etc/crypttab entry for the encrypted disk:

cr_root UUID=<uuid> luks none

And then re-create the initial ramdisk. For dracut systems, you’ll have to modify /etc/default/grub so the GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX has a rd.luks.uuid=<UUID> entry. If this is a selinux based distribution, you may also have to trigger a relabel.

Now would also be a good time to make sure you have a root password you know or to install /root/.ssh/authorized_keys. You should unmount all the binds and /mnt and try EFI booting the image. You’ll still have to type the password a couple of times, but once the image boots you’re operating inside the encrypted envelope. All that remains is to create a fast boot high entropy low iteration password and replace the existing one with it and set the initial ramdisk to use it. This example assumes your image is mounted as SCSI disk sda, but it may be a virtual disk or some other device.

dd if=/dev/urandom bs=1 count=33|base64 -w 0 > /etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/luks-<UUID>.key
chmod 600 /etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/luks-<UUID>.key
cryptsetup --key-slot 1 luksAddKey /dev/sda2 # permanent recovery key
cryptsetup --key-slot 0 luksRemoveKey /dev/sda2 # remove temporary
cryptsetup --key-slot 0 --iter-time 1 luksAddKey /dev/sda2 /etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/luks-<UUID>.key

Note the “-w 0” is necessary to prevent the password from having a trailing newline which will make it difficult to use. For mkinitramfs systems, you’ll now need to modify the /etc/crypttab entry

cr_root UUID=<UUID> /etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/luks-<UUID>.key luks

For dracut you need the key install hook in /etc/dracut.conf.d as described above and for Debian you need the keyfile pattern:

echo "KEYFILE_PATTERN=\"/etc/cryptsetup-keys.d/*\"" >>/etc/cryptsetup-initramfs/conf-hook

You now rebuild the initial ramdisk and you should now be able to boot the cryptosystem using either the high entropy password or your rescue one and it should only prompt in grub and shouldn’t prompt again. This image file is now ready to be used for confidential computing.

Creating a Home IPv6 Network

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One of the recent experiences of Linux Plumbers Conference convinced me that if you want to be part of a true open source WebRTC based peer to peer audio/video interaction, you need an internet address that’s not behind a NAT. In reality, the protocol still works as long as you can contact a stun server to tell you what your external address is and possibly a turn server to proxy the packets if both endpoints are NATed but all this seeking external servers takes time as those of you who complained about the echo test found. The solution to all this is to connect over IPv6 which has an address space large enough to support every device on the planet having its own address. All modern Linux distributions support IPv6 out of the box so the chances are you’ve actually accidentally used it without ever noticing, which is one of the beauties of IPv6 autoconfiguration (it’s supposed to just work).

However, I recently moved, and so lost my fibre internet connection to cable but cable that did come with an IPv6 address, so this is my story of getting it all to work. If you don’t really care about the protocol basics, you can skip down to the how. This guide is also focussed on a “dual stack” configuration (one that has both IPv6 and IPv4 addresses). Pure IPv6 configurations are possible, but because some parts of the internet are still IPv4 only, they’re not complete unless you set up an IPv4 encapsulating bridge.

The Basics of IPv6

IPv6 has been a mature protocol for a long time now, so I erroneously assumed there’d be a load of good HOWTOs about it. However, after reading 20 different descriptions of how the IPv6 128 bit address space works and not much else, I gave up in despair and read the RFCs instead. I’ll assume you’ve read at least one of these HOWTOS, so I don’t have to go into IPv6 address prefixes, suffixes, interface IDs or subnets so I’ll begin where most of the HOWTOs end.

How does IPv6 Just Work?

In IPv4 there’s a protocol called dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) so as long as you can find a DHCP server you can get all the information you need to connect (local address, router, DNS server, time server, etc). However, this service has to be set up by someone and IPv6 is designed to configure a network without it.

The first assumption IPv6 StateLess Address AutoConfiguration (SLAAC) makes is that it’s on a /64 subnet (So every subnet in IPv6 contains 1010 times as many addresses as the entire IPv4 internet). This means that, since most real subnets contain <100 systems, they can simply choose a random address and be very unlikely to clash with the existing systems. In fact, there are three current ways of choosing an address in the /64:

  1. EUI-64 (RFC 4291) based on the MAC address which is basically the MAC with one bit flipped and ff:fe placed in the middle.
  2. Stable Private (RFC 7217) which generate from a hash based on a static key, interface, prefix and a counter (the counter is incremented if there is a clash). These are preferred to the EUI-64 ones which give away any configuration associated with the MAC address (such as what type of network card you have)
  3. Privacy Extension Addresses (RFC 4941) which are very similar to stable private addresses except they change over time using the IPv6 address deprecation mechanism and are for client systems who want to preserve anonymity.

The next problem in Linux is who configures the interface? The Kernel IPv6 stack is actually designed to do it, and will unless told not to, but most of the modern network controllers (like NetworkManager) are control freaks and turn off the kernel’s auto configuration so they can do it themselves. They also default to stable private addressing using a static secret maintained in the filesystem (/var/lib/NetworkManager/secret_key).

The next thing to understand about IPv6 addresses is that they are divided into scopes, the most important being link local (unrouteable) addresses which conventionally always have the prefix fe80::/64. The link local address is configured first using one of the above methods and then used to probe the network.

Multicast and Neighbour Discovery

Unlike IPv4, IPv6 has no broadcast capability so all discovery is done by multicast. Nodes coming up on the network subscribe to particular multicast addresses, via special packets intercepted by the switch, and won’t receive any multicast to which they’re not subscribed. Conventionally, all link local multicast addresses have the prefix ff02::/64 (for other types of multicast address see RFC 4291). All nodes subscribe to the “all nodes” multicast address ff02::1 and also must subscribe to their own solicited node multicast address at ff02::1:ffXX:XXXX where the last 24 bits correspond to the lowest 24 bits of the node’s IPv6 address. This latter is to avoid the disruption that used to occur in IPv4 from ARP broadcasts because now you can target a specific subset of nodes for address resolution.

The IPV6 address resolution protocol is called Neighbour Solicitation (NS), described in RFC 4861 and it’s use with SLAAC described in RFC 4862, and is done by sending a multicast to the neighbor solicitation address of the node you want to discover containing the full IPv6 address you want to know, a node with the matching address replies with its link layer (MAC) address in a Neighbour Advertisement (NA) packet.

Once a node has chosen its link local address, it first sends out a NS packet to its chosen address to see if anyone replies and if no-one does it assumes it is OK to keep it otherwise it follows the collision avoidance protocol associated with its particular form of address. Once it has found a unique address, the node configures this link local address and looks for a router. Note that if an IPv6 network isn’t present, discovery stops here, which is why most network interfaces always show a link local IPv6 address.

Router Discovery

Once the node has its own unique link local address, it uses it to send out Router Solicitation (RS) packets to the “all routers” multicast address ff02::2. Every router on the network responds with a Router Advertisement (RA) packet which describes (among other things) the the router lifetime, the network MTU, a set of one or more prefixes the router is responsible for, the router’s link address and a set of option flags including the M (Managed) and O (Other Configuration) flag and possibly a set of DNS servers.

Each advertised prefix contains the prefix and prefix length, a set of flags including the A (autonomous configuration) and L (link local) and a set of lifetimes. The Link Local prefixes tell you what global prefixes the local network users (there may be more than one) and whether you are allowed to do SLAAC on the global prefix (if the A flag is clear, you must ask the router for an address using DHCPv6). If the router has a non zero lifetime, you may assume it is a default router for the subnet.

Now that the node has discovered one or more routers it may configure its own global address (note that every IPv6 routeable node has at least two addresses: a link local and a global). How it does this depends on the router and prefix flags

Global Address Configuration

The first thing a node needs to know is whether to use SLAAC for the global address or DHCPv6. This is entirely determined by the A flag of any link local prefix in the RA packet. If A is set, then the node may use SLAAC and if A is clear then the node must use DHCPv6 to obtain an address. If A is set and also the M (Managed) flag then the node may use either SLAAC or DHCPv6 (or both) to obtain an address and if the M flag is clear, but the O (Other Config) flag is present then the node must use SLAAC but may use DHCPv6 to obtain other information about the network (usually DNS).

Once the node has a global address in now needs a default route. It forms the default route list from the RA packets that have a non-zero router Lifetime. All of these are configured as default routes to their link local address with the RA specified hop count. Finally, the node may add specific prefix routes from RA packets with zero router LifeTimes but non link local prefixes.

DHCPv6 is a fairly complex configuration protocol (see RFC 8415) but it cannot specify either prefix length (meaning all obtained addresses are configured as /128) or routes (these must be obtained from RA packets). This leads to a subtlety of outbound address selection in that the most specific is always preferred, so if you configure both by SLAAC and DHCPv6, the SLAAC address will be added as /64 and the DHCPv6 address as /128 meaning your outbound IP address will always be the DHCPv6 one (although if an external entity knows your SLAAC address, they will still be able to reach you on it).

The How: Configuring your own Home Router

One of the things you’d think from the above is that IPv6 always auto configures and, while it is true that if you simply plug your laptop into the ethernet port of a cable modem it will just automatically configure, most people have a more complex home setup involving a router, which needs some special coaxing before it will work. That means you need to obtain additional features from your ISP using special DHCPv6 requests.

This section is written from my own point of view: I have a rather complex IPv4 network which has a completely open but bandwidth limited (to untrusted clients) wifi network, and several protected internal networks (one for my lab, one for my phones and one for the household video cameras), so I need at least 4 subnets to give every device in my home an IPv6 address. I also use OpenWRT as my router distribution, so all the IPv6 configuration information is highly specific to it (although it should be noted that things like NetworkManager can also do all of this if you’re prepared to dig in the documentation).

Prefix Delegation

Since DHCPv6 only hands out a /128 address, this isn’t sufficient because it’s the IP address of the router itself. In order to become a router, you must request delegation of part of the IPv6 address space via the Identity Association for Prefix Delection (IA_PD) option of DHCPv6. Once this is done the router IP address will be assumed by the ISP to be the route for all of the delegated prefixes. The subtlety here is that if you want more than one subnet, you have to ask for it specifically (the client must specify the exact prefix length it’s looking for) and since it’s a prefix length, and your default subnet should be /64, if you request a prefix length of 64 you only have one subnet. If you request 63 you have 2 and so on. The problem is how do you know how many subnets the ISP is willing to give you? Unfortunately there’s no way of finding this (I had to do an internet search to discover my ISP, Comcast, was willing to delegate a prefix length of 60, meaning 16 subnets). If searching doesn’t tell you how much your ISP is willing to delegate, you could try starting at 48 and working your way to 64 in increments of 1 to see what the largest delegation you can get away with (There have been reports of ISPs locking you at your first delegated prefix length, so don’t start at 64). The final subtlety is that the prefix you’re delegated may not be the same prefix as the address your router obtained (my current comcast configuration has my router at 2001:558:600a:… but my delegated prefix is 2601:600:8280:66d0:/60). Note you can run odhcp6c manually with the -P option if you have to probe your ISP to find out what size of prefix you can get.

Configuring the Router for Prefix Delegation

In OpenWRT terms, the router WAN DHCP(v6) configuration is controlled by /etc/default/network. You’ll already have a WAN interface (likely called ‘wan’) for DHCPv4, so you simply add an additional ‘wan6’ interface to get an additional IPv6 and become dual stack. In my configuration this looks like

config interface 'wan6'
        option ifname '@wan'
        option proto 'dhcpv6'
        option reqprefix 60

The slight oddity is the ifname: @wan simply tells the config to use the same ifname as the ‘wan’ interface. Naming it this way is essential if your wan is a bridge, but it’s good practice anyway. The other option ‘reqprefix’ tells DHCPv6 to request a /60 prefix delegation.

Handing Out Delegated Prefixes

This turns out to be remarkably simple. Firstly you have to assign a delegated prefix to each of your other interfaces on the router, but you can do this without adding a new OpenWRT interface for each of them. My internal IPv4 network has all static addresses, so you add three directives to each of the interfaces:

config interface 'lan'
        ... interface designation (bridge for me)
        option proto 'static'
        ... ipv4 addresses
        option ip6assign '64'
        option ip6hint '1'
        option ip6ifaceid '::ff'

ip6assign ‘N’ means you are a /N network (so this is always /64 for me) and ip6hint ‘N’ means use N as your subnet id and ip6ifaceid ‘S’ means use S as the IPv6 suffix (This defaults to ::1 so if you’re OK with that, omit this directive). So given I have a 2601:600:8280:66d0::/60 prefix, the global address of this interface will be 2601:600:8280:66d1::ff. Now the acid test, if you got this right, this global address should be pingable from anywhere on the IPv6 internet (if it isn’t, it’s likely a firewall issue, see below).

Advertising as a Router

Simply getting delegated a delegated prefix on a local router interface is insufficient . Now you need to get your router to respond to Router Solicitations on ff02::2 and optionally do DHCPv6. Unfortunately, OpenWRT has two mechanisms for doing this, usually both installed: odhcpd and dnsmasq. What I found was that none of my directives in /etc/config/dhcp would take effect until I disabled odhcpd completely

/etc/init.d/odhcpd stop
/etc/init.d/odhcpd disable

and since I use dnsmasq extensively elsewhere (split DNS for internal/external networks), that suited me fine. I’ll describe firstly what options you need in dnsmasq and secondly how you can achieve this using entries in the OpenWRT /etc/config/dhcp file (I find this useful because it’s always wise to check what OpenWRT has put in the /var/etc/dnsmasq.conf file).

The first dnsmasq option you need is ‘enable-ra’ which is a global parameter instructing dnsmasq to handle router advertisements. The next parameter you need is the per-interface ‘ra-param’ which specifies the global router advertisement parameters and must appear once for every interface you want to advertise on. Finally the ‘dhcp-range’ option allows more detailed configuration of the type of RA flags and optional DHCPv6.

SLAAC or DHCPv6 (or both)

In many ways this is a matter of personal choice. If you allow SLAAC, hosts which want to use privacy extension addresses (like Android phones) can do so, which is a good thing. If you also allow DHCPv6 address selection you will have a list of addresses assigned to hosts and dnsmasq will do DNS resolution for them (although it can do DNS for SLAAC addresses provided it gets told about them). A special tag ‘constructor’ exists for the ‘dhcp-range’ option which tells it to construct the supplied address (for either RA or DHCPv6) from the IPv6 global prefix of the specified interface, which is how you pass out our delegated prefix addresses. The modes for ‘dhcp-range’ are ‘ra-only’ to disallow DHCPv6 entirely, ‘slaac’ to allow DHCPv6 address selection and ‘ra-stateless’ to disallow DHCPv6 address selection but allow other DHCPv6 configuration information.

Based on trial and error (and finally examining the scripting in /etc/init.d/dnsmasq) the OpenWRT options required to achieve the above dnsmasq options are

config dhcp lan
        option interface lan
        option start 100
        option limit 150
        option leasetime 1h
        option dhcpv6 'server'
        option ra_management '1'
        option ra 'server'

with ‘ra_management’ as the key option with ‘0’ meaning SLAAC with DHCPv6 options, ‘1’ meaning SLAAC with full DHCPv6, ‘2’ meaning DHCPv6 only and ‘3’ meaning SLAAC only. Another OpenWRT oddity is that there doesn’t seem to be a way of setting the lease range: it always defaults to either static only or ::1000 to ::ffff.

Firewall Configuration

One of the things that trips people up is the fact that Linux has two completely separate firewalls: one for IPv4 and one for IPv6. If you’ve ever written any custom rules for them, the chances are you did it in the OpenWRT /etc/firewall.user file and you used the iptables command, which means you only added the rules to the IPv4 firewall. To add the same rule for IPv6 you need to duplicate it using the ip6tables command. Another significant problem, if you’re using a connection tracking for port knock detection like I am, is that Linux connection tracking has difficulty with IPv6 multicast, so packets that go out to a multicast but come back as unicast (as most of the discovery protocols do) get the wrong conntrack state. To fix this, I eventually had to have an INPUT rule just accepting all ICMPv6 and DHCPv6 (udp ports 546 [client] and 547 [server]). The other firewall considerations are that now everyone has their own IP address, there’s no need to NAT (OpenWRT can be persuaded to take care of this automatically, but if you’re duplicating the IPv4 rules manually, don’t duplicate the NAT rules). The final one is likely more applicable to me: my wifi interface is designed to be an extension of the local internet and all machines connecting to it are expected to be able to protect themselves since they’ll migrate to such hostile environments as airport wifi, thus I do complete exposure of wifi connected devices to the general internet for all ports, including port probes. For my internal devices, I have a RELATED,ESTABLISHED rule to make sure they’re not probed since they’re not designed to migrate off the internal network.

Now the problems with OpenWRT: since you want NAT on IPv4 but not on IPv6 you have to have two separate wan zones for them: if you try to combine them (as I first did), then OpenWRT will add an IPv6 –ctstate INVALID rule which will prevent Neighbour Discovery from working because of the conntrack issues with IPv6 multicast, so my wan zones are (well, this is a lie because my firewall is now hand crafted, but this is what I checked worked before I put the hand crafted firewall in place):

config zone
        option name 'wan'
        option network 'wan'
        option masq '1'
        ...

config zone
        option name 'wan6'
        option network 'wan6'
        ...

And the routing rules for the lan zone (fully accessible) are

config forwarding
        option src 'lan'
        option dest 'wan'

config forwarding
        option src 'lan'
        option dest 'wan6'

config forwarding
        option src 'wan6'
        option dest 'lan'

Putting it Together: Getting the Clients IPv6 Connected

Now that you have your router configured, everything should just work. If it did, your laptop wifi interface should now have a global IPv6 address

ip -6 address show dev wlan0

If that comes back empty, you need to enable IPv6 on your distribution. If it has only a link local (fe80:: prefix) address, IPv6 is enabled but your router isn’t advertising (suspect firewall issues with discovery packets or dnsmasq misconfiguration). If you see a global address, you’re done. Now you should be able to go to https://testv6.com and secure a 10/10 score.

The final piece of the puzzle is preferring your new IPv6 connection when DNS offers a choice of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses. All modern Linux clients should prefer IPv6 when available if connected to a dual stack network, so try … if you ping, say, www.google.com and see an IPv6 address you’re done. If not, you need to get into the murky world of IPv6 address labelling (RFC 6724) and gai.conf.

Conclusion

Adding IPv6 to and existing IPv4 setup is currently not a simple plug in and go operation. However, provided you understand a handful of differences between the two protocols, it’s not an insurmountable problem either. I have also glossed over many of the problems you might encounter with your ISP. Some people have reported that their ISPs only hand out one IPv6 address with no prefix delegation, in which case I think finding a new ISP would be wisest. Others report that the ISP will only delegate one /64 prefix so your choice here is either to only run one subnet (likely sufficient for a lot of home networks), or subnet at greater than /64 and forbid SLAAC, which is definitely not a recommended configuration. However, provided your ISP is reasonable, this blog post should at least help get you started.

Lessons from the GNOME Patent Troll Incident

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First, for all the lawyers who are eager to see the Settlement Agreement, here it is. The reason I can do this is that I’ve released software under an OSI approved licence, so I’m covered by the Releases and thus entitled to a copy of the agreement under section 10, but I’m not a party to any of the Covenants so I’m not forbidden from disclosing it.

Analysis of the attack

The Rothschild Modus Operandi is to obtain a fairly bogus patent (in this case, patent 9,936,086), form a limited liability corporation (LLC) that only holds the one patent and then sue a load of companies with vaguely related businesses for infringement. A key element of the attack is to offer a settlement licensing the patent for a sum less than it would cost even to mount an initial defence (usually around US$50k), which is how the Troll makes money: since the cost to file is fairly low, as long as there’s no court appearance, the amount gained is close to US$50k if the target accepts the settlement offer and, since most targets know how much any defence of the patent would cost, they do.

One of the problems for the target is that once the patent is issued by the USPTO, the court must presume it is valid, so any defence that impugns the validity of the patent can’t be decided at summary judgment. In the GNOME case, the sued project, shotwell, predated the filing of the patent by several years, so it should be obvious that even if shotwell did infringe the patent, it would have been prior art which should have prevented the issuing of the patent in the first place. Unfortunately such an obvious problem can’t be used to get the case tossed on summary judgement because it impugns the validity of the patent. Put simply, once the USPTO issues a patent it’s pretty much impossible to defend against accusations of infringement without an expensive trial which makes the settlement for small sums look very tempting.

If the target puts up any sort of fight, Rothschild, knowing the lack of merits to the case, will usually reduce the amount offered for settlement or, in extreme cases, simply drop the lawsuit. The last line of defence is the LLC. If the target finds some way to win damages (as ADS did in 2017) , the only thing on the hook is the LLC with the limited liability shielding Rothschild personally.

How it Played out Against GNOME

This description is somewhat brief, for a more in-depth description see the Medium article by Amanda Brock and Matt Berkowitz.

Rothschild performed the initial attack under the LLC RPI (Rothschild Patent Imaging). GNOME was fortunate enough to receive an offer of Pro Bono representation from Shearman and Sterling and immediately launched a defence fund (expecting that the cost of at least getting into court would be around US$200k, even with pro bono representation). One of its first actions, besides defending the claim was to launch a counterclaim against RPI alleging exceptional practices in bringing the claim. This serves two purposes: firstly, RPI can’t now simply decide to drop the lawsuit, because the counterclaim survives and secondly, by alleging potential misconduct it seeks to pierce the LLC liability shield. GNOME also decided to try to obtain as much as it could for the whole of open source in the settlement.

As it became clear to Rothschild that GNOME wouldn’t just pay up and they would create a potential liability problem in court, the offers of settlement came thick and fast culminating in an offer of a free licence and each side would pay their own costs. However GNOME persisted with the counter claim and insisted they could settle for nothing less than the elimination of the Rothschild patent threat from all of open source. The ultimate agreement reached, as you can read, does just that: gives a perpetual covenant not to sue any project under an OSI approved open source licence for any patent naming Leigh Rothschild as the inventor (i.e. the settlement terms go far beyond the initial patent claim and effectively free all of open source from any future litigation by Rothschild).

Analysis of the Agreement

Although the agreement achieves its aim, to rid all of Open Source of the Rothschild menace, it also contains several clauses which are suboptimal, but which had to be included to get a speedy resolution. In particular, Clause 10 forbids the GNOME foundation or its affiliates from publishing the agreement, which has caused much angst in open source circles about how watertight the agreement actually was. Secondly Clause 11 prohibits GNOME or its affiliates from pursuing any further invalidity challenges to any Rothschild patents leaving Rothschild free to pursue any non open source targets.

Fortunately the effect of clause 10 is now mitigated by me publishing the agreement and the effect of clause 11 by the fact that the Open Invention Network is now pursuing IPR invalidity actions against the Rothschild patents.

Lessons for the Future

The big lesson is that Troll based attacks are a growing threat to the Open Source movement. Even though the Rothschild source may have been neutralized, others may be tempted to follow his MO, so all open source projects have to be prepared for a troll attack.

The first lesson should necessarily be that if you’re in receipt of a Troll attack, tell everyone. As an open source organization you’re not going to be able to settle and you won’t get either pro bono representation or the funds to fight the action unless people know about it.

The second lesson is that the community will rally, especially with financial aid, if you put out a call for help (and remember, you may be looking at legal bills in the six figure range).

The third lesson is always file a counter claim to give you significant leverage over the Troll in settlement negotiations.

And the fourth lesson is always refuse to settle for nothing less than neutralization of the threat to the entirety of open source.

Conclusion

While the lessons above should work if another Rothschild like Troll comes along, it’s by no means guaranteed and the fact that Open Source project don’t have the funding to defend themselves (even if they could raise it from the community) makes them look vulnerable. One thing the entire community could do to mitigate this problem is set up a community defence fund. We did this once before 16 years ago when SCO was threatening to sue Linux users and we could do it again. Knowing there was a deep pot to draw on would certainly make any Rothschild like Troll think twice about the vulnerability of an Open Source project, and may even deter the usual NPE type troll with more resources and better crafted patents.

Finally, it should be noted that this episode demonstrates how broken the patent system still is. The key element Rothschild like trolls require is the presumption of validity of a granted patent. In theory, in the light of the Alice decision, the USPTO should never have granted the patent but it did and once that happened the troll targets have no option than either to pay up the smaller sum requested or expend a larger sum on fighting in court. Perhaps if the USPTO can’t stop the issuing of bogus patents it’s time to remove the presumption of their validity in court … or at least provide some sort of prima facia invalidity test to apply at summary judgment (like the project is older than the patent, perhaps).

Why Ethical Open Source Really Isn’t

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A lot of virtual ink has been expended debating the practicalities of the new push to adopt so called ethical open source licences. The two principle arguments being it’s not legally enforceable and it’s against the Open Source Definition. Neither of these seems to be hugely controversial and the proponents of ethical licences even acknowledge the latter by starting a push to change the OSD itself. I’m not going to rehash these points but instead I’m going to examine the effects injecting this form of ethics would have on Open Source Communities and society in general. As you can see from the title I already have an opinion but I hope to explain in a reasoned way how that came about.

Ethics is Absolute Ethical Positions are Mostly Relative

Ethics itself is the actual process by which philosophical questions of human morality are resolved. The job of Ethics is to give moral weight to consequences in terms of good and evil (or ethical and unethical). However, ethics also recognizes that actions have indivisible compound consequences of which often some would be classified as unethical and some as ethical. There are actually very few actions where all compound consequences are wholly Ethical (or Unethical). Thus the absolute position that all compound consequences must be ethical rarely exists in practice and what people actually mean when they say an action is “ethical” is that in their judgment the unethical consequences are outweighed by the ethical ones. Where and how you draw this line of ethical being outweighed by unethical is inherently political and can vary from person to person.

To give a concrete example tied to the UN Declaration of Human Rights (since that seems to be being held up as the pinnacle of unbiased ethics): The right to bear arms is enshrined in the US constitution as Amendment 2 and thus is protected under the UNDHR Article 8. However, the UNHDR also recognizes under Article 3 the right to life, liberty and security of person and it’s arguable that flooding the country with guns precipitating mass shootings violates this article. Thus restricting guns in the US would violate 8 and support 3 and not restricting them do the opposite. Which is more important is essentially a political decision and where you fall depend largely on whether you see yourself as Republican or Democrat. The point being this is a classical ethical conundrum where there is no absolute ethical position because it depends on the relative weights you give to the ethical and unethical consequences. The way out of this is negotiation between both sides to achieve a position not necessarily that each side supports wholeheartedly but which each side can live with.

The above example shows the problem of ethical open source because there are so few wholly ethical actions as to make conditioning a licence on this alone pointlessly ineffective and to condition it on actions with mixed ethical consequences effectively injects politics because the line has to be drawn somewhere, which means that open source under this licence becomes a politicized process.

The Relativity of Protest

Once you’ve made the political determination that a certain mixed consequence thing is unethical there’s still the question of what you do about it. For the majority expressing their preference through the ballot box every few years is sufficient. For others the gravity is so great that some form of protest is required. However, what forms of protest you choose to adhere to and what you choose not to is also an ethically relative choice. For instance a lot of the people pushing ethical open source would support the #NoTechForICE political movement. However if you look at locations on twitter, most of them are US based and thus pay taxes to the US government that supports and funds the allegedly unethical behaviour of ICE. Obviously they could protest this by withdrawing their support via taxation but they choose not to because the personal consequences would be too devastating. Instead they push ethical licences and present this as a simple binary choice when it isn’t at all: the decision about whether forcing a political position via a licence is one which may have fewer personally devastating consequences, but which people who weigh the ethical consequences are still entitled to think might be devastating for open source itself and thus an incorrect protest choice.

Community, Discrimination and Society

One of the great advances Open Source Communities have made over the past few years is the attempts to eliminate all forms of discrimination either by the introduction of codes of conduct or via other means. What this is doing is making Open Source more inclusive even as society at large becomes more polarized. In the early days of open source, we realized that simple forms of inclusion, talking face to face, had huge advantages in social terms (the face on the end of the email) and that has been continued into modern times and enhanced with the idea that conferences should be welcoming to all people and promote unbiased discussion in an atmosphere of safety. If Society itself is ever to overcome the current political polarization it will have to begin with both sides talking to each other presumably in one of the few remaining unpolarized venues for such discussion and thus keeping Open Source Communities one of these unpolarized venues is a huge societal good. That means keeping open source unpoliticized and thus free from discrimination against people, gender, sexual orientation, political belief or field of endeavour; the very things our codes of conduct mostly say anyway.

It is also somewhat ironic that the very people who claim to be champions against discrimination in open source now find it necessary to introduce discrimination to further their own supposedly ethical ends.

Conclusion

I hope I’ve demonstrated that ethical open source is really nothing more than co-opting open source as a platform for protest and as such will lead to the politicization of open source and its allied communities causing huge societal harm by removing more of our much needed unpolarized venues for discussion. It is my ethical judgement that this harm outweighs the benefits of using open source as a platform for protest and is thus ethically wrong. With regard to the attempts to rewrite the OSD to be more reflective of modern society, I content that instead of increasing our ability to discriminate by removing the fields of endeavour restriction, we should instead be tightening the anti-discrimination clauses by naming more things that shouldn’t be discriminated against which would make Open Source and the communities which are created by it more welcoming to all manner of contributions and keep them as neutral havens where people of different beliefs can nevertheless observe first hand the utility of mutual collaboration, possibly even learning to bridge the political, cultural and economic divides as a consequence.

Retro Engineering: Updating a Nexus One for the modern world

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A few of you who’ve met me know that my current Android phone is an ancient Nexus One. I like it partly because of the small form factor, partly because I’ve re-engineered pieces of the CyanogneMod OS it runs to suit me and can’t be bothered to keep upporting to newer versions and partly because it annoys a lot of people in the Open Source Community who believe everyone should always be using the latest greatest everything. Actually, the last reason is why, although the Nexus One I currently run is the original google gave me way back in 2010, various people have donated a stack of them to me just in case I might need a replacement.

However, the principle problem with running one of these ancient beasts is that they cannot, due to various flash sizing problems, run anything later than Android 2.3.7 (or CyanogenMod 7.1.0) and since the OpenSSL in that is ancient, it won’t run any TLS protocol beyond 1.0 so with the rush to move to encryption and secure the web, more and more websites are disallowing the old (and, lets admit it, buggy) TLS 1.0 protocol, meaning more and more of the web is steadily going dark to my mobile browser. It’s reached the point where simply to get a boarding card, I have to download the web page from my desktop and transfer it manually to the phone. This started as an annoyance, but it’s becoming a major headache as the last of the websites I still use for mobile service go dark to me. So the task I set myself is to fix this by adding the newer protocols to my phone … I’m an open source developer, I have the source code, it should be easy, right …?

First Problem, the source code and Build Environment

Ten years ago, I did build CyanogenMod from scratch and install it on my phone, what could be so hard about reviving the build environment today. Firstly there was finding it, but github still has a copy and the AOSP project it links to still keeps old versions, so simply doing a

curl https://dl-ssl.google.com/dl/googlesource/git-repo/repo > ~/bin/repo
repo init -u -u git://github.com/CyanogenMod/android.git -b gingerbread --repo-url=git://github.com/android/tools_repo.git
repo sync

Actually worked (of course it took days of googling to remember these basic commands). However the “brunch passion” command to actually build it crashed and burned somewhat spectacularly. Apparently the build environment has moved on in the last decade.

The first problem is that most of the prebuilt x86 binaries are 32 bit. This means you have to build the host for 32 bit, and that involves quite a quest on an x86_64 system to make sure you have all the 32 bit build precursors. The next problem is that java 1.6.0 is required, but fortunately openSUSE build service still has it. Finally, the big problem is a load of c++ compile issues which turn out to be due to the fact that the c++ standard has moved on over the years and gcc-7 tries the latest one. Fortunately this can be fixed with

export HOST_GLOBAL_CPPFLAGS=-std=gnu++98

And the build works. If you’re only building the OpenSSL support infrastructure, you don’t need to build the entire thing, but figuring out the pieces you do need is hard, so building everything is a good way to finesse the dependency problem.

Figuring Out how to Upgrade OpenSSL

Unfortunately, this is Android, so you can’t simply drop a new OpenSSL library into the system and have it work. Firstly, the version of OpenSSL that Android builds with (at least for 2.3.7) is heavily modified, so even an android build of vanilla OpenSSL won’t work because it doesn’t have the necessary patches. Secondly, OpenSSL is very prone to ABI breaks, so if you start with 0.9.8, for instance, you’re never going to be able to support TLS 1.2. Fortunately, Android 2.3.7 has OpenSSL 1.0.0a so it is in the 1.0.0 ABI and versions of openssl for that ABI do support later versions of TLS (but only in version 1.0.1 and beyond). The solution actually is to look at external/openssl and simply update it to the latest version the project has (for CyanogenMod this is cm-10.1.2 which is openssl 1.0.1c … still rather ancient but at least supporting TLS 1.2).

cd external/openssl
git checkout cm-10.1.2
mm

And it builds and even works when installed on the phone … great. Except that nothing can use the later ciphers because the java provider (JSSE) also needs updating to support them. Updating the JSSE provider is a bit of a pain but you can do it in two patches:

Once this is done and installed you can browse most websites. There are still some exceptions because of websites that have caught the “can’t use sha1 in any form” bug, but these are comparatively minor. The two patches apply to libcore and once you have them, you can rebuild and install it.

Safely Installing the updated files

Installing new files in android can be a bit of a pain. The ideal way would be to build the entire rom and reflash, but that’s a huge pain, so the simple way is simply to open the /system partition and dump the files in. Opening the system partition is easy, just do

adb shell
# mount -o remount,rw /system

Uploading the required files is more difficult primarily because you want to make sure you can recover if there’s a mistake. I do this by transferring the files to <file>.new:

adb push out/target/product/passion/system/lib/libcrypto.so /system/lib/libcrypto.so.new
adb push out/target/product/passion/system/lib/libssl.so /system/lib/libssl.so.new
adb push out/target/product/passion/system/framework/core.jar /system/framework/core.jar.new

Now move everything into place and reboot

adb shell
# mv /system/lib/libcrypto.so /system/lib/libcrypto.so.old && mv /system/lib/libcrtypto.so.new /system/lib/libcrypto.so
# mv /system/lib/libssl.so /system/lib/libssl.so.old && mv /system/lib/libssl.so.new /system/lib/libssl.so
# mv /system/framework/core.jar /system/framework/core.jar.old && mv /system/framework/core.jar.new /system/framework/core.jar

If the reboot fails, use adb to recover

adb shell
# mount /system
# mv /system/lib/libcrypto.so.old /system/lib/libcrypto.so
...

Conclusions

That’s it. Following the steps above, my Nexus One can now browse useful internet sites like my Airline and the New York times. The only website I’m still having trouble with is the Wall Street Journal because they disabled all ciphers depending on sha1

The Mythical Economic Model of Open Source

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It has become fashionable today to study open source through the lens of economic benefits to developers and sometimes draw rather alarming conclusions. It has also become fashionable to assume a business model tie and then berate the open source community, or their licences, for lack of leadership when the business model fails. The purpose of this article is to explain, in the first part, the fallacy of assuming any economic tie in open source at all and, in the second part, go on to explain how economics in open source is situational and give an overview of some of the more successful models.

Open Source is a Creative Intellectual Endeavour

All the creative endeavours of humanity, like art, science or even writing code, are often viewed as activities that produce societal benefit. Logically, therefore, the people who engage in them are seen as benefactors of society, but assuming people engage in these endeavours purely to benefit society is mostly wrong. People engage in creative endeavours because it satisfies some deep need within themselves to exercise creativity and solve problems often with little regard to the societal benefit. The other problem is that the more directed and regimented a creative endeavour is, the less productive its output becomes. Essentially to be truly creative, the individual has to be free to pursue their own ideas. The conundrum for society therefore is how do you harness this creativity for societal good if you can’t direct it without stifling the very creativity you want to harness? Obviously society has evolved many models that answer this (universities, benefactors, art incubation programmes, museums, galleries and the like) with particular inducements like funding, collaboration, infrastructure and so on.

Why Open Source development is better than Proprietary

Simply put, the Open Source model, involving huge freedoms to developers to decide direction and great opportunities for collaboration stimulates the intellectual creativity of those developers to a far greater extent than when you have a regimented project plan and a specific task within it. The most creatively deadening job for any engineer is to find themselves strictly bound within the confines of a project plan for everything. This, by the way, is why simply allowing a percentage of paid time for participating in Open Source seems to enhance input to proprietary projects: the liberated creativity has a knock on effect even in regimented development. However, obviously, the goal for any Corporation dependent on code development should be to go beyond the knock on effect and actually employ open source methodologies everywhere high creativity is needed.

What is Open Source?

Open Source has it’s origin in code sharing models, permissive from BSD and reciprocal from GNU. However, one of its great values is the reasons why people do open source aren’t the same reasons why the framework was created in the first place. Today Open Source is a framework which stimulates creativity among developers and helps them create communities, provides economic benefits to corportations (provided they understand how to harness them) and produces a great societal good in general in terms of published reusable code.

Economics and Open Source

As I said earlier, the framework of Open Source has no tie to economics, in the same way things like artistic endeavour don’t. It is possible for a great artist to make money (as Picasso did), but it’s equally possible for a great artist to live all their lives in penury (as van Gough did). The demonstration of the analogy is that trying to measure the greatness of the art by the income of the artist is completely wrong and shortsighted. Developing the ability to exploit your art for commercial gain is an additional skill an artist can develop (or not, as they choose) it’s also an ability they could fail in and in all cases it bears no relation to the societal good their art produces. In precisely the same way, finding an economic model that allows you to exploit open source (either individually or commercially) is firstly a matter of choice (if you have other reasons for doing Open Source, there’s no need to bother) and secondly not a guarantee of success because not all models succeed. Perhaps the easiest way to appreciate this is through the lens of personal history.

Why I got into Open Source

As a physics PhD student, I’d always been interested in how operating systems functioned, but thanks to the BSD lawsuit and being in the UK I had no access to the actual source code. When Linux came along as a distribution in 1992, it was a revelation: not only could I read the source code but I could have a fully functional UNIX like system at home instead of having to queue for time to write up my thesis in TeX on the limited number of department terminals.

After completing my PhD I was offered a job looking after computer systems in the department and my first success was shaving a factor of ten off the computing budget by buying cheap pentium systems running Linux instead of proprietary UNIX workstations. This success was nearly derailed by an NFS bug in Linux but finding and fixing the bug (and getting it upstream into the 1.0.2 kernel) cemented the budget savings and proved to the department that we could handle this new technology for a fraction of the cost of the old. It also confirmed my desire to poke around in the Operating System which I continued to do, even as I moved to America to work on Proprietary software.

In 2000 I got my first Open Source break when the product I’d been working on got sold to a silicon valley startup, SteelEye, whose business plan was to bring High Availability to Linux. As the only person on the team with an Open Source track record, I became first the Architect and later CTO of the company, with my first job being to make the somewhat eccentric Linux SCSI subsystem work for the shared SCSI clusters LifeKeeper then used. Getting SCSI working lead to fund interactions with the Linux community, an Invitation to present on fixing SCSI to the Kernel Summit in 2002 and the maintainership of SCSI in 2003. From that point, working on upstream open source became a fixture of my Job requirements but progressing through Novell, Parallels and now IBM it also became a quality sought by employers.

I have definitely made some money consulting on Open Source, but it’s been dwarfed by my salary which does get a boost from my being an Open Source developer with an external track record.

The Primary Contributor Economic Models

Looking at the active contributors to Open Source, the primary model is that either your job description includes working on designated open source projects so you’re paid to contribute as your day job
or you were hired because of what you’ve already done in open source and contributing more is a tolerated use of your employer’s time, a third, and by far smaller group is people who work full-time on Open Source but fund themselves either by shared contributions like patreon or tidelift or by actively consulting on their projects. However, these models cover existing contributors and they’re not really a route to becoming a contributor because employers like certainty so they’re unlikely to hire someone with no track record to work on open source, and are probably not going to tolerate use of their time for developing random open source projects. This means that the route to becoming a contributor, like the route to becoming an artist, is to begin in your own time.

Users versus Developers

Open Source, by its nature, is built by developers for developers. This means that although the primary consumers of open source are end users, they get pretty much no say in how the project evolves. This lack of user involvement has been lamented over the years, especially in projects like the Linux Desktop, but no real community solution has ever been found. The bottom line is that users often don’t know what they want and even if they do they can’t put it in technical terms, meaning that all user driven product development involves extensive and expensive product research which is far beyond any open source project. However, this type of product research is well within the ability of most corporations, who can also afford to hire developers to provide input and influence into Open Source projects.

Business Model One: Reflecting the Needs of Users

In many ways, this has become the primary business model of open source. The theory is simple: develop a traditional customer focussed business strategy and execute it by connecting the gathered opinions of customers to the open source project in exchange for revenue for subscription, support or even early shipped product. The business value to the end user is simple: it’s the business value of the product tuned to their needs and the fact that they wouldn’t be prepared to develop the skills to interact with the open source developer community themselves. This business model starts to break down if the end users acquire developer sophistication, as happens with Red Hat and Enterprise users. However, this can still be combatted by making sure its economically unfeasible for a single end user to match the breadth of the offering (the entire distribution). In this case, the ability of the end user to become involved in individual open source projects which matter to them is actually a better and cheaper way of doing product research and feeds back into the synergy of this business model.

This business model entirely breaks down when, as in the case of the cloud service provider, the end user becomes big enough and technically sophisticated enough to run their own distributions and sees doing this as a necessary adjunct to their service business. This means that you can no-longer escape the technical sophistication of the end user by pursuing a breadth of offerings strategy.

Business Model Two: Drive Innovation and Standardization

Although venture capitalists (VCs) pay lip service to the idea of constant innovation, this isn’t actually what they do as a business model: they tend to take an innovation and then monetize it. The problem is this model doesn’t work for open source: retaining control of an open source project requires a constant stream of innovation within the source tree itself. Single innovations get attention but unless they’re followed up with another innovation, they tend to give the impression your source tree is stagnating, encouraging forks. However, the most useful property of open source is that by sharing a project and encouraging contributions, you can obtain a constant stream of innovation from a well managed community. Once you have a constant stream of innovation to show, forking the project becomes much harder, even for a cloud service provider with hundreds of developers, because they must show they can match the innovation stream in the public tree. Add to that Standardization which in open source simply means getting your project adopted for use by multiple consumers (say two different clouds, or a range of industry). Further, if the project is largely run by a single entity and properly managed, seeing the incoming innovations allows you to recruit the best innovators, thus giving you direct ownership of most of the innovation stream. In the early days, you make money simply by offering user connection services as in Business Model One, but the ultimate goal is likely acquisition for the talent possesed, which is a standard VC exit strategy.

All of this points to the hypothesis that the current VC model is wrong. Instead of investing in people with the ideas, you should be investing in people who can attract and lead others with ideas

Other Business Models

Although the models listed above have proven successful over time, they’re by no means the only possible ones. As the space of potential business models gets explored, it could turn out they’re not even the best ones, meaning the potential innovation a savvy business executive might bring to open source is newer and better business models.

Conclusions

Business models are optional extras with open source and just because you have a successful open source project does not mean you’ll have an equally successful business model unless you put sufficient thought into constructing and maintaining it. Thus a successful open source start up requires three elements: A sound business model, or someone who can evolve one, a solid community leader and manager and someone with technical ability in the problem space.

If you like working in Open Source as a contributor, you don’t necessarily have to have a business model at all and you can often simply rely on recognition leading to opportunities that provide sufficient remuneration.

Although there are several well known business models for exploiting open source, there’s no reason you can’t create your own different one but remember: a successful open source project in no way guarantees a successful business model.